Carbone, hydrogène na ogisijeni ni byo bintu nyamukuru kama mu makara, bingana na 95%; Iyo ubujyakuzimu bwimbitse, niko karubone irushaho kuba hydrogène hamwe na ogisijeni. Carbone na hydrogène nibintu bitanga ubushyuhe mugihe cyo gutwika amakara, na ogisijeni nikintu gishyigikira umuriro. Iyo amakara yatwitse, azote ntabwo itanga ubushyuhe, ahubwo ihinduka okiside ya azote na ammonia ku bushyuhe bwinshi, kandi igwa mu bwisanzure. Amazi ya sufuru, fosifore, fluor, chlorine na arsenic ni ibintu byangiza amakara, muri byo sulferi ni ngombwa cyane. Iyo amakara yatwitswe, igice kinini cya sulfuru iba oxyde muri dioxyde de sulfure (SO2), isohorwa na gaze ya flue, ihumanya ikirere, ibangamira imikurire y’inyamaswa n’ibimera n’ubuzima bw’abantu, ndetse no kwangiza ibikoresho by’ibyuma; Iyo amakara arimo sulfure menshi akoreshwa muri kokisi ya metallurgiki, bigira ingaruka no kumiterere ya kokiya nicyuma. Kubwibyo, ibiri muri "sulfure" nimwe mubipimo byingenzi byo gusuzuma ubwiza bwamakara.

Gazi yaka iterwa no kubora kw'ibinyabuzima mu makara mu gihe cy'ubushyuhe no mu bihe bimwe na bimwe byitwa "volatile", ni gaze ivanze igizwe na hydrocarbone zitandukanye, hydrogène, monoxide ya karubone n'ibindi bintu. Ihindagurika kandi ni cyo kintu nyamukuru cyerekana ubuziranenge bw’amakara, kigira uruhare runini mu kugena uburyo bwo gutunganya no gukoresha hamwe n’ikoranabuhanga ry’amakara. Amakara afite impamyabumenyi ntoya afite ibintu byinshi bihindagurika. Niba ibintu byo gutwika bidakwiriye, amakara arimo ibintu byinshi bihindagurika azavamo byoroshye uduce duto twa karubone idatwikwa iyo yaka, bakunze kwita "umwotsi wirabura"; Kandi utange imyanda myinshi nka monoxyde de carbone, hydrocarbone ya polycyclic aromatic na aldehydes, kandi ubushyuhe buragabanuka. Kubwibyo rero, uburyo bukwiye bwo gutwikwa nibikoresho bigomba gutoranywa ukurikije ibintu bihindagurika byamakara.

Hariho ibintu bike bidakoreshwa mu makara, cyane cyane amazi n’amabuye y'agaciro, kandi kubaho kwabyo bigabanya ubwiza n’imikoreshereze y’amakara. Amabuye y'agaciro ni umwanda nyamukuru mu makara, nka sulfide, sulfate na karubone, ibyinshi bikaba ari ibintu byangiza.

"Ubushuhe" bugira uruhare runini mu gutunganya no gukoresha amakara. Iyo amazi ahindutse mumyuka mugihe cyo gutwikwa, ikurura ubushyuhe, bityo bikagabanya agaciro kamakara yamakara. Ubushuhe mu makara burashobora kugabanwa nubushuhe bwo hanze hamwe nubushuhe bwimbere, kandi ubushuhe bwimbere bukoreshwa nkigipimo co gusuzuma ubwiza bwamakara. Hasi urwego rwo guhuriza hamwe, niko ubuso bwimbere bwamakara hamwe nubushyuhe buri hejuru.

"Ivu" nigisigara gikomeye gisigaye nyuma yamakara yatwitse burundu, kandi nikimenyetso cyingenzi cyubuziranenge bwamakara. Ivu ahanini rituruka kumabuye y'agaciro adashya. Iyo imyunyu ngugu yatwitse, igomba gukuramo ubushyuhe, kandi umubare munini wa slag uzakuraho ubushyuhe, bityo ivu ryinshi, niko ubushyuhe bwo gutwika amakara bugabanuka; Ivu ryinshi, niko ivu ryinshi riterwa no gutwikwa n’amakara, hamwe n’ivu ryinshi riguruka. Muri rusange, ivu ryamakara yujuje ubuziranenge hamwe n’amakara asukuye ni make [1].

Amakara akwirakwizwa ku migabane yose no mu birwa byo mu nyanja, ariko ikwirakwizwa ry’amakara ku isi ntiringana cyane, kandi ububiko bw’amakara mu bihugu bitandukanye nabwo buratandukanye cyane. Ubushinwa, Amerika, Uburusiya n'Ubudage bikungahaye ku bubiko bw'amakara, kandi ni n'ibihugu bikomeye bitanga amakara ku isi, muri byo Ubushinwa nicyo gihugu gifite amakara menshi ku isi. Umutungo w’amakara mu Bushinwa uri ku isonga ry’isi, uwa kabiri nyuma y’Amerika, Uburusiya na Ositaraliya [9].

Nubwo umwanya wingenzi wamakara wasimbuwe namavuta, mugihe kirekire, byanze bikunze uzagabanuka kubera kugabanuka kwa peteroli gahoro gahoro. Kubera ububiko bunini bwamakara niterambere ryihuse ryubumenyi n’ikoranabuhanga, ikoranabuhanga rishya nka gaze y’amakara rimaze gukura kandi rikoreshwa cyane.

Ukurikije ibikoresho bitandukanye byumwimerere nuburyo bwo gushinga amakara, amakara muri kamere ashobora kugabanywamo ibyiciro bitatu, aribyo amakara ya humus, amakara ya humus asigaye hamwe namakara ya sapropeli.

Ubushinwa nicyo gihugu cya mbere cyakoresheje amakara ku isi. Ubukorikori bw'amakara bwabonetse mu muco gakondo wa Xinle mu Ntara ya Liaoning, kandi udutsima tw’amakara twabonetse no mu mujyi wa gongyi, Intara ya Henan.

Muri Shan Hai Jing, amakara yitwa amabuye nie, naho mu ngoma ya Wei na Jin, amakara yitwa grafite cyangwa karubone. Izina amakara ryakoreshejwe bwa mbere muri Compendium ya Materia Medica na Li Shizhen mu ngoma ya Ming.

Ubugereki na Roma ya kera nabyo byari ibihugu byakoreshaga amakara mbere. Intiti y'Abagereki Theophrastos yanditse Amateka y'Ibuye ahagana mu mwaka wa 300 mbere ya Yesu, yandika imiterere n'inkomoko y'amakara. Uburoma bwa kera bwatangiye gukoresha amakara mu gushyushya hashize imyaka 2000.

Amakara nigice kinini cyane cya humus yumukara yegeranijwe kubutaka n'amashami n'imizi y'ibimera mumyaka miriyoni. Kubera ihinduka ryubutaka bwisi, burahora buhambwa munsi yubutaka kandi bugashyirwa mu kirere igihe kirekire, kandi nyuma yuruhererekane rwimiterere ihindagurika ryumubiri nubumara munsi yubushyuhe bwinshi n’umuvuduko mwinshi, ikora urutare rwirabura rushobora gutwikwa, ni uburyo bwo gushinga amakara.

Ubunini bwikara ryamakara mu kirombe cyamakara bufitanye isano n'umuvuduko wo kugabanuka k'ubutaka no kwegeranya ibihingwa biguma muri kariya gace. Ubutaka bwisi burimo kugwa vuba, kandi ibisigazwa byigihingwa birundarunda cyane, bityo amakara yamakara muri iki kirombe cyamakara. Ibinyuranye na byo, ubutaka bw'isi buragenda bugabanuka buhoro, kandi igihingwa gisigaye kirundarunda cyane, bityo amakara y’amakara muri iki kirombe ni gito. Kubera urujya n'uruza rwa tectonic rwubutaka bwisi, umwimerere wamakara utambitse yamakara arazinga kandi aravunika. Amakara amwe arashyingurwa mu kuzimu cyane, andi akajugunywa hejuru, cyangwa akerekanwa nubutaka, byoroshye kuboneka kubantu. Hariho kandi amakara amwe amwe yoroheje kandi mato mu karere, ku buryo nta gaciro kacukurwa, kandi nta n'amakuru agezweho yerekeye ishyirwaho ry'amakara.

Amakara yakozwe muri ubu buryo? Niba imurikagurisha rimwe rigomba kurushaho kwigwa no kuganirwaho. Ikirombe kinini cy'amakara gifite amakara menshi kandi afite ubuziranenge bw'amakara, ariko ubuso bwayo ntabwo ari bunini muri rusange. Niba ari ibintu bisanzwe byegeranya amababi n'imizi y'ibimera mumyaka miriyoni, ubuso bwayo bugomba kuba bunini cyane. Kubera ko amashyamba n’ibyatsi byari hose ku isi mu bihe bya kera, hagomba kubaho ibimenyetso byo kubika amakara ahantu hose mu nsi; Ikara ry'amakara ntabwo byanze bikunze ribyibushye cyane, kubera ko amababi n'imizi y'ibimera bibora humus, bizakirwa n'ibimera. Nibisubirwamo, ntibizibanda cyane mugihe amaherezo bizashyingurwa mu nsi, kandi imbibi ziri hagati yubutaka n’amakara ntizisobanutse neza.

Ariko, ntawahakana ukuri nifatiro ko amakara yakozwe mubyukuri nihindagurika ryimiterere yimyanda yibimera, nukuri kudashidikanywaho. Igihe cyose witegereje witonze amakara, urashobora kubona ibimenyetso byamababi n'imizi y'ibimera; Niba ukataguye amakara ukayareba munsi ya microscope, urashobora kubona ibice byimiterere byimiterere nububiko, kandi rimwe na rimwe ibintu nkibiti bibikwa mu makara y’amakara, kandi amakara amwe n'amwe aracyafunze hamwe n’ibisigazwa by’udukoko byuzuye.

Munsi yubushyuhe busanzwe hamwe nigitutu cyubuso, igihingwa gisigaye cyegeranijwe mumazi adahagaze gihinduka peat cyangwa sapropelic na peat cyangwa sapropelic; Nyuma yo gushyingurwa, ifu cyangwa sapropelike ibyondo byiroha munsi yubutaka bwimbitse kubera kugabanuka kwikibasi cyo hasi hanyuma bigahinduka lignite binyuze muri diagenez; Iyo ubushyuhe n'umuvuduko byiyongereye buhoro buhoro, bihinduka amakara ya bituminiyumu kuri anthracite na metamorphism. Peatisation bivuga inzira ibisigazwa byibiti byo hejuru birundanyiriza mu bishanga kandi bigahinduka ifu binyuze mumihindagurikire y’ibinyabuzima. Sapropargisation bivuga inzira ibisigazwa byibinyabuzima byo hasi bihinduka icyondo cya sapropelique binyuze mumihindagurikire y’ibinyabuzima mu bishanga. Sapropargite ni ubwoko bwibyondo bikungahaye kumazi na asfaltene. Inzira ya glacier irashobora kugira uruhare mu kwegeranya no kubungabunga ibihingwa bikora amakara [2].

Imyaka yo gushinga amakara

Mubihe byose bya geologiya, hariho ibihe bitatu byingenzi bigize amakara kwisi:

Muri Paleozoic Carboniferous na Permian, ibihingwa bikora amakara ahanini byari ibihingwa bya spore. Ubwoko bw'amakara nyamukuru ni amakara ya bituminiyumu na anthracite.

Muri Jurassic na Cretaceous ya Mesozoic, ibihingwa bikora amakara ahanini byari imikino ngororamubiri. Ubwoko bwamakara nyamukuru ni amakara ya lignite na bituminiyumu.

Muri kaminuza ya Cenozoic, ibihingwa bikora amakara ahanini byari angiosperms. Amakara nyamukuru ni lignite, agakurikirwa na peat hamwe namakara akiri mato.

Amakara ni yo akwirakwizwa cyane n’ingufu z’ibinyabuzima ku isi, agabanijwemo cyane mu byiciro bine: amakara ya bituminiyumu na anthracite, amakara ya bituminiyumu na lignite. 60% by'amakara ashobora kugarurwa ku isi yibanze muri Amerika (25%), Repubulika y'Abasoviyeti (23%) n'Ubushinwa (12%). Byongeye kandi, Ositaraliya, Ubuhinde, Ubudage na Afurika yepfo bingana na 29% by’umusaruro w’amakara ku isi, kandi amakara yemejwe ko arenze inshuro 63 ibyo peteroli ibamo. Ibihugu bifite amakara akungahaye ku isi nabyo ni amakara.